The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature

William James’s perspectives on religion, philosophy, and the conscious experience are best understood within the context of the rapid change occurring at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, when The Varieties of Religious Experience was published. By 1900, the American landscape had altered entirely, and the country took its place as a powerful player in the global economy. Train tracks ran from coast to coast, and telephones made it possible to speak to people in cities across the nation. The United State held the title of largest agricultural producer and supplied the world from its seemingly endless oil supply. The country was an industrial force, producing more steel and automobiles than any other country in the world. Philosophers like William James were tasked with making sense of this new, connected reality.

Embracing the diverse experiences of human life in the 19th century, philosophy exploded into a complex web of approaches. Transcendentalists pushed for self-reliance and spiritual truth. German philosophers like Hegel, Kant, Schelling, and Fichte explored reality through the lens of personal experience and perspective. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels drew attention to class struggles and systems of economic power. William James and his contemporaries, including Charles Sanders Peirce, embraced practical applications of philosophy by developing the theoretical framework of pragmatism. James was especially interested in looking at the utility of truth and religion.

The global shift toward industrialization brought a decline in religious interest. Although James was not religious himself, he felt it was important to embrace the experiences of others for what they offer to the individual: Religion gave people peace and showed them how to care for their neighbors. Rather than contributing to intellectual skepticism directed at religion or emphasizing one type over another, James emphasized plurality. He was not quick to dismiss ideas or experiences; instead, he proposed that all experiences are valid and serve a purpose. James argued that philosophy must keep an open mind to the diverse range of human experiences and attempt to understand how those experiences function within people’s lives.

James was not afraid to diverge from those around him. He saw the vast shifts in American and global societies, and he sought a philosophical approach that could adapt to encompass these evolutions. Even his appearance reflected his rebellious spirit. Often appearing in a Norfolk jacket, colorful shirt, and vibrant boutonniere, James stood out among his seriously-dressed colleagues at Harvard. Like most parts of his life, James’s clothing was subject to his own philosophical scrutiny. After reading Hermann Lotze's Microcosmus: An Essay Concerning Man and His Relation to the World (1856), he adopted a style of dress which he felt best reflected his inner sense of self. One photo of James shows a young man with his hands casually shoved into his pockets, wearing sunglasses and a hat cocked to the side, expressing an attitude of rebellion and optimism. His outward appearance mirrored his dedication to open-mindedness and self-reflection.

Where other philosophers and intellectuals of his time embraced pessimism, William James was hopeful. Although he could be extremely critical of himself, he held a positive outlook on others. As a teacher, he deviated from his contemporaries at Harvard by encouraging students to ask questions, offering positive reinforcement, and developing personal relationships with his students. James believed that teachers could invite critical thinking and meet the needs of various learning styles.